Exotic Pet Care Tips

Box turtles are slow moving and can’t chase fast prey. A good simple diet includes about 50% vegetables and 50% protein sources (box turtle food, earthworms, slugs, phoenix worms). Vegetables should be mostly leafy greens such as kale, collards, and dandelions; avoid iceburg lettuce as it is nutritionally poor. Fruits can be used sparingly. Use a nutritional guide to choose veggies with good calcium /phosphorous content. Variety helps minimize risk of nutritional deficiencies; ideally the turtle should regularly eat at least 6-8 different vegetables. Various dry & canned box turtle diets are available; Bearded Dragon diets can be used also. The best are probably pelleted foods which are bright colored and palatable. Pretty Pets and T Rex make quality diets. The pellets can be offered dry, softened with water, or ground up into a powder and sprinkled on damp veggies daily. A diet which includes a good variety of veggies, worms, and commercial food is complete & balanced, and does not need any additional supplementation. Avoid high protein foods for mammals such as meats, dog food, cat food or monkey chow as these are not balanced for a turtle. 

     If you can’t use a commercial turtle diet, then protein & vitamins need to be provided in other ways, although achieving a good nutritional balance is more difficult. Protein sources include tofu, beans (various types), silkworms, earthworms (nightcrawlers, not redworms or compost worms), slugs, crickets & Dubia roaches (the last 2 must be fed a high calcium ‘gut loading’ insect food (T-Rex Calcium Plus or Mazuri) for 2-3 days prior to feeding them to the turtle, or they will be calcium deficient).  Avoid mealworms, superworms, and waxworms, as they are nutritionally poor. Without box turtle food, vitamins & minerals can be provided via a single powdered multivitamin-mineral supplement such as Reptocal or Reptivite; use only a tiny pinch on the food once weekly, no more. Overdosing is easy with supplements, and some products are potentially toxic; it is usually safer to use a commercial diet which has a balanced vitamin content.

     Water should be provided at all times. Use a small, low bowl which is too heavy to easily tip over; a ceramic ashtray may be used. Ideally the bowl should be small enough to prevent the turtle from soaking and defecating in the water.  Baths are unnecessary, but if elected they should be done in a separate container with shallow warm water, and should be brief (15-30 minutes maximum). 

A terrarium is usually needed to provide good housing, although the turtle can exercise in the house daily (up to 30 minute intervals). The terrarium walls and top should be mostly solid, not screen, to trap heat and humidity. A minimum size would be 3.5-4 square feet of floor space (equivalent to an 18 X 30 inch or 24 X 24 inch enclosure). Cage height is less important, as the turtle lives on the cage bottom. Artificial turf makes good flooring as it can be cleaned & reused, and it can’t be eaten. Sand, gravel, corn cob, wood chips, etc may be eaten and cause bowel blockages; if used they must be changed regularly when soiled. Air temperature measured in the shade (under a solid piece of cardboard or wood), away from all heat sources, should be 75-85F in the day, and above 70F at night.  Good thermometers include mercury, round dial-type, or digital; avoid paper color-strips which stick on the cage wall, or infrared guns, which do not accurately measure air temperature. Reptile heat pads can be used under the cage or on the back cage wall.  Hot rocks can be used, but should be covered (with turf or other rocks) to prevent burns. Heat lamps should be at least 12-18 inches above the turtle to prevent burns. Dark heat lamps can be used day & night; dim purple or lightless ceramic-coated bulbs are best. Box turtles are shy and the cage should be in a quiet area. They need hiding places to feel secure, but avoid using dark caves or boxes which block exposure to the UV light. Instead provide objects such as plants or rocks to hide behind, or use paper to cover the cage glass in one corner, creating a private area which remains well lighted. A small hiding box with an open top can also allow UV to reach your turtle while hiding.

     Lighting should be provided 12-14 hours daily, with the remainder being dark. You must provide white (visible) light and ultraviolet light in the 280-320 nm wavelengths (called UV-B).  This mimics basking in sunlight. Our climate provides too little sun, and window glass or plexiglass filters out most UV light, so you must provide sunlight artificially. The best lighting for most terrariums is fluorescent full spectrum bulbs; simple heat lamps are not adequate for UV. Good brands include Arcadia, and Reptisun by Zoomed; some others are Reptiglo, Reptasun by Flukers, and Reptile Daylight by Energy Savers Unlimited. These bulbs won’t burn the pet and need to be close to the turtle to be effective; in general the maximum effective distance is less than the length of the bulb. For instance, a 24 inch tube needs to be within 18 inches of the floor. The bulb should big enough to cover the entire length of the cage. Avoid glass or plastic barriers between the bulb and the pet, as these block the UV light. Change fluorescent bulbs every 6-7 months when in use, as they produce less UV over time. 

    Mercury vapor lamps also produce UV light; these resemble regular incandescent bulbs, but produce both heat and UV. They last about 1 year. These usually cost $45-100, and when turned off must cool down before they can restart. Cheaper incandescent bulbs (which don’t require a cool down period to restart) are simple filament-type bulbs, and do not produce UV. Vapor bulbs are powerful and hot, and are best suited for very large, tall enclosures, not the average terrarium. 

     Healthy turtles may be allowed to hibernate in winter in an unheated garage or greenhouse. The temperature needs to be below 55F ideally, and the day length should be short (winter hours). Healthy hibernation must be induced gradually in the fall, with steady decreases in day length & temperatures as it occurs outdoors. This can be difficult to achieve, and it may be safer to keep a turtle active in the winter. Never hibernate a sick or underweight turtle. 

A terrarium is usually needed to provide good housing, although the turtle can exercise in the house daily (up to 30 minute intervals). The terrarium walls and top should be mostly solid, not screen, to trap heat & humidity. A minimum size would be 3 ¾ to 4 square feet of floor space (equivalent to an 18x 30 inch or 24×24 inch enclosure.) Cage height is less important as the turtle lives on the cage bottom. Artificial turf makes good flooring as it can be cleaned and reused, and it can’t be eaten. Sand, gravel, corn cob, wood chips, etc may be eaten and cause bowel blockages; if used they must be changed regularly when soiled. Air temperature measured near floor level in the shade (under a solid piece of cardboard or wood, away from heat sources) should be 75-85°F in the day, and ideally above 70°F even at night.

Use a good mercury, digital, or dial-type thermometer which can be moved to check temperature in various locations at the cage bottom; avoid paper strip thermometers or temp guns, which do not give reliable air temperatures. A reptile heat pad beneath the cage is one heating method; hot rocks can be used but should be covered (with turf or other rocks) to prevent burns from direct contact. Heat lamps inside the cage should be at least 18 inches above the turtle to prevent burns. If a heat lamp is used at night it should produce minimal light; good choices are lightless ceramic-coated bulbs, though dim purple or red night lights can also be used. Box turtles are shy and the cage should be in a quiet area. They need hiding places to feel secure, but you should try to avoid using dark caves or hiding boxes which block exposure to UV light. Instead provide objects such as plants or rocks to hide behind, or use paper to cover the cage glass in one corner, creating a private area which remains well lighted. UV light should be able to reach your turtle even while hiding.

Lighting should be provided 12-14 hours daily, with the remainder being dark. You must provide white (visible) light and ultraviolet light in the 280-320 nm wavelengths (called UV-B). This mimics basking in the open sunlight. Our climate provides too little sun, and window glass or plexiglass filters out most of the UV light, so you need to provide sunlight artificially. The simplest lighting is fluorescent full spectrum bulbs; incandescent “screw type” round bulbs are not adequate. Some good brands include Reptisun by Zoomed, and Reptile D-Light. Other bulbs which produce less UV but are adequate include Verilux, Reptasun by Flukers, Reptiglo, and Reptile Daylight by Energy Savers Unlimited (ESU). These bulbs won’t burn the pet and need to be close to the turtle to be effective; in general the effective distance is less than the bulb length. For instance, a common 24 inch tube should be within 18 inches of the turtle. Bulbs should run the entire cage length; tubes less than 24 inches long (including compact coils) are usually too weak to be effective. Avoid glass or plastic barriers between the bulb and the pet (these block UV). Change these bulbs every 6-8 months when in use as they produce less UV light over time.

NOTE: more recently a few incandescent “screw type” round bulbs have appeared which do produce UV-B; these look like typical bulbs but are actually mercury vapor lamps. They produce both UV and strong heat, so should be kept at least 18 inches from the turtle. Their effective lifespan is uncertain; probably they are reliable for at least 1 year. These devices cost $45-100 and when turned off must have a “cool down” period before they can be restarted. Incandescent bulbs which cost less and do not require a cool down period are simple filament-type bulbs, and do not produce adequate UV-B.

Healthy turtles may be allowed to hibernate in the winter in an unheated garage or greenhouse; the temperature needs to be below 55°F ideally, and day length should be short (winter hours). Healthy hibernation must be induced gradually in the fall, with decreases in day length and air temperatures as occurs outdoors. This can be hard to achieve indoors, and it may be best to keep a turtle active in the winter. Never hibernate a sick or underweight turtle.

→ Respiratory Infections:

Common among stressed turtles, especially new pets which were recently captured and shipped. Poor diet or environment also stress the turtle and allow infection. Symptoms: crusty or runny eyes, swollen eyes, runny nose (often with bubbles out the nostrils), and mucus in the mouth. They often will not eat, and if untreated may progress to pneumonia and die. Treatment: antibiotics daily, correct the environment, and force feed if needed.

→ Vitamin A Deficiency:

Currently a rare condition. Mimics respiratory infection but not as severe, mostly eye swelling and discharge. Often the turtle is still eating. This condition only develops if the turtle has been on a Vitamin A deficient diet (or not eating at all) for months. Treatment: Vitamin A orally (not injectable; the injectable forms are easily overdosed and potentially toxic to turtles). Good sources: commercial turtle foods, some greens, papaya, yellow vegetables, carrots (limit these due to low calcium content).

→ Middle Ear Infections:

Visible as a swelling on the side of the neck where the ear should be. Usually results from a respiratory infection. Treatment: Surgical drainage of the infection, antibiotic injections, and correction of the diet and environment.

→ Beak & Nail Overgrowth:

This condition is seen only in turtles that have been in captivity for some time, and is likely the result of nutritional imbalances such as excessive protein intake or vitamin imbalances (including overdosing with supplements). Low humidity may also play a role in creating these lesions. The beak and nails overgrow and also may become thickened and deformed. Severe cases may develop deep cracks in the dry thickened skin of the extremities, which can cause the toes or tail to break and fall off.  Treatment involves trimming the overgrown beak and nails, using ointments to soften the thick dry skin when needed, and correction of the diet and environment. Even severe cases may be reversed over time, though lost appendages do not regrow.

→ Shell Rot:

Infection of the shell (usually bacterial, occasionally fungal) which causes pitting, discoloration or softness of the shell. If untreated, the lesions can deepen and spread, eventually causing death. Treatment: Removal of the infected areas of shell, topical disinfectants applied daily, keep the shell dry and give oral or injectable antibiotics in severe cases.

→ Intestinal Parasites:

Box turtles may carry a variety of worms and other parasites of the digestive tract. Symptoms: Diarrhea, poor weight gain, lethargy; worms may also be present without obvious symptoms. Treatment: Bring a fecal sample and/ or worms (if seen) to a veterinarian for identification so the proper worm medication may be used.

→ Appetite Loss:

Box turtles easily lose appetite if their environment stresses them; cool temperatures, low UV levels, short days, a cramped cage, lack of hiding places, and excess noise or disturbance may all cause the turtle to stop eating. Any illness such as an infection often causes appetite loss as well. If your pet stops eating for more than a few days (except when properly hibernated) you should seek veterinary advice.

The diet should consist of lean grass hay such as timothy or oat hay (not alfalfa), and chinchilla pellets.  If necessary a guinea pig pellet may be substituted. Avoid pellet mixes with seeds, nuts or dried fruits as they may cause obesity or bowel upsets. The pellets may be rationed if obesity occurs, but the hay is always fed free choice. Fresh vegetables (mostly leafy greens) may be used sparingly (up to 10-15% of the total diet).  Avoid sweet items (fruits, corn, baby carrots, tomatoes, etc.) and high protein items (oats, beans, alfalfa, soy, nuts) as these may cause bowel upsets.  Minimize vegies in the cabbage family (kale, cabbage, bok choy, broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, collards), as they may cause excess gas and upset the bowel also.  Fresh water should always be provided; a water bottle is cleaner than a bowl and can’t be spilled.  Keep the food and water supplies very clean.

Chinchillas should be housed in a well ventilated cage that is kept cool and dry.  They don’t tolerated heat & humidity; their ideal temperature range is 60-72 F.  Wire cages are usually used;  glass or plastic cages must be well ventilated to minimize humidity and odor buildup.  Wood cages are hard to keep clean and may be gnawed through.  The cage floor can be wire or solid.  Wire floors allow waste to fall through but may cause foot sores; cover the wire with thick straw or provide a solid platform (wood or cardboard) in one area to sit on.  Solid floors should be covered with straw, fleece, or paper bedding to absorb wastes; clean the cage often.  Chinchillas are very active and require space; a good cage size is 6 ft X 6 ft X 3 ft with a one foot square nest box.  If a smaller cage is used then ample exercise time outside the cage should be provided.  Be careful to prevent chewing on wood furniture, baseboards, extension cords, etc.  Chinchillas are not very social and are usually housed separately unless breeding.

     Dust baths should be provided at least once to twice weekly to maintain healthy fur.  The bath must be large and deep enough to allow the chinchilla to roll over in it.  Finely powdered volcanic ash is used; several brands of “chinchilla dust” are sold.  An alternative is a mix of 9 parts silver sand to 1 part Fuller’s earth.  The dust should be provided for only a short time during the day.

Chinchillas tend to fight when housed together; females are more aggressive.  Breeders often use polygamous colonies with one male having access to several females housed separately.  Chinchillas breed all year, especially November through May.  Females may attack the male, so he should be able to leave the breeding cage; the female may wear a collar which prevents her exiting the cage.  Up to 20% of females may not breed, likely due to incompatibility with the male.  Pregnancy lasts 105-115 days (ave. 111 days).  Most births are in the morning; litter size is 1-5 babies (average 2).  

→ Fur Slip:

Chinchillas often lose patches of fur when handled roughly. Fighting between animals also may cause hair loss. The skin is not injured by fur slip but the coat may be unsightly.

→ Barbering/ Fur Chewing:

This is a behavioral problem wherein the chinchilla chews its fur or another animal’s fur causing a rough moth-eaten appearance. Contributing factors may include boredom, dirty fur, diet imbalances, or hereditary factors such as a stress prone personality. Providing cardboard chew toys such as paper towel roll centers, minimizing stress and disturbances, and keeping the cage clean, cool & dry, may help prevent barbering. Selecting & breeding animals with low key personalities may also reduce incidence of this problem.

→ Heat Stroke:

High temperatures and humidity aren’t tolerated by chinchillas. Overheated pets often lie on their sides and pant. They may feel hot to the touch. Excess humidity may produce unkempt, damp fur. Treatment starts with misting or bathing in cold water; veterinary aid should be quickly sought as this condition is often fatal.

→ Enteritis (Intestinal Infection):

A common disease in chinchillas. Often the exact cause is uncertain. Bacterial, viral and protozoal agents have all been associated with forms of intestinal upset in chinchillas. A few causes include Pseudomonas, Salmonella, E. coli, and Giardia. Poor husbandry and improper diet may increase risk of an outbreak. Simple gut upsets without infection also may occur if the diet is not correct; these are dangerous also. Symptoms may include diarrhea, depression, appetite loss, abdominal pain or bloating, partial paralysis, and death. A fecal exam may aid diagnosis. This condition is life-threatening; veterinary care should be quickly sought. Treatment includes supportive care and sometimes antibiotic therapy. Bacterial supplements such as milk free acidophilus may help; antidiarrheals such as kaopectate or blackberry leaves can be used. Bowel stimulants (Reglan, Propulsid) may be used if the bowel has stopped moving. Severe cases may receive injected fluids. Bowel upsets can be fatal if not caught early.

→ Dental Disease:

Chinchilla teeth grow constantly. They are prone to several tooth problems. Malocclusion is a condition wherein the teeth don’t properly wear against each other and overgrow. Incisor (front tooth) overgrowth is visible; the teeth may achieve extreme lengths and protrude from the mouth like tusks. Molars (back teeth) may overgrow but aren’t visible; signs include drooling, oral odor, difficulty eating, and a wet or soiled chin. The causes of these problems are variable and may include infection, tooth trauma from cage bar biting, diet, and hereditary factors. Treatment includes grinding or trimming the teeth to proper length, and correction of any known underlying factors. Extraction of some abnormal teeth may be needed. Tooth infections may involve front or back teeth, and can result in facial swelling, odor, appetite loss, and loose or painful teeth. Treatment is via extraction of infected teeth, draining all visible abscesses, and oral antibiotics. Severe abscesses may involve large areas of the face and may be life threatening.

→ Respiratory Infection:

Respiratory infection can involve the nasal passages, producing sneezing or runny eyes & nose; severe cases can involve the lungs (pneumonia) and produce wheezing, lethargy, rough coat and labored breathing. Untreated this can be fatal. The infections are bacterial, and may be caused by Bordetella, Pasteurella, Pseudomonas, and E. Coli. Damp, dirty or drafty housing may increase risk of infection. Treatment includes antibiotics, supportive care, and correction of any underlying problems with the diet & environment.

→ Ringworm (Fungal Infection):

Trichophyton is a common fungus found in soil and on animals which can cause skin disease in chinchillas. Infected pets may occasionally transmit the fungus to other animals or humans. Signs are usually crusty or flaky skin around the face and ears, and sometimes on the feet. Hair loss and scabs may occur. Treatment involves topical or systemic antifungal drugs.

→ Fractures:

Chinchillas have long slender legs with relatively fragile bone structure, and are prone to jumping and falling, or getting legs caught in cage bars. Fractures easily occur. Most need splinting or pinning to stabilize the fracture. Badly traumatized or infected legs occasionally need amputation, although chinchillas do quite well on three legs. Get any wound or fracture treated immediately to avoid severe complications.

The bulk of the diet should be timothy-based guinea pig pellets (not a seed & fruit mix), and lean grass hay such as timothy or oat hay.  Avoid alfalfa pellets except with pregnant or nursing females and babies, who need the extra protein and calcium that alfalfa provides.  Pellets may be fed free-choice unless obesity occurs; hay is always fed free choice.  Pellets provide balanced nutrition; hay provides roughage essential for intestinal health in cavies.  Veggies should be limited to small amounts of leafy greens; these can include leaf lettuce, parsley, cilantro, dandelion, blackberry leaves, & carrot tops. Fresh grasses are safe. Items high in sugars (fruit, baby carrots, tomatoes, corn, etc) or high in protein (seeds, oats, alfalfa) should be avoided, as they easily cause bloat or diarrhea which can be deadly.  Avoid greens in the cabbage group (broccoli, cabbage, kale, bok choy, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower) as these may also cause bloating. 

     Guinea pigs also need Vitamin C in their diet daily.  Pelleted food should not be relied on for Vitamin C needs, because this vitamin deteriorates rapidly with time and exposure to heat, light and air.  The daily MINIMUM Vitamin C requirement is 10 mg per day; pregnant or ill cavies may need 30+ mg daily.  Vitamin C additives for water bottles are usually inadequate.  Fresh food sources provide some Vit C, but grocery store fruits & vegetables may cause bowel upsets if fed in enough quantity to meet a cavy’s vitamin needs.  The most reliable way is to use chewable Vitamin C tablets; Oxbow makes 25 mg chewables for cavies; these can be softened with water to improve palatability.  Children’s vitamin C tablets can be used, but are stronger (break 100 mg tablet into pieces roughly equivalent to 25 mg). Giving more Vit C than necessary isn’t a problem, unless the dose is extreme.  

     Fresh water should always be available.  Ball bearing bottles are cleaner, and not as easily spilled as bowls.  Clean the cage, food and water sources regularly. 

→ Vitamin C Deficiency (Scurvy):

Signs of scurvy include drooling, weight loss, hair loss or reluctance to move due to painful joints. Therapy is mainly Vitamin C supplementation. Correction of the diet to include daily Vitamin C sources is necessary. Supportive care (fluids, antibiotics, etc) may be needed in very ill patients. This is a common and preventable disease in this species.

→ Dental Diseases:

Guinea pigs have constantly growing teeth, and may develop overgrown front teeth (incisors) or back teeth (molars) for a variety of reasons. Vitamin C deficiency (scurvy) can cause TMJ pain and lead to tooth overgrowth. Incisor overgrowth may be visible as long tusk-like projections from the mouth. Molar overgrowth (or molar infections) may cause drooling, chin staining, foul odor, and difficulty eating. Treatment of tooth problems often involves trimming the overgrown teeth back to normal length, extracting any infected teeth, correcting any other illness which may be contributing to the problem, and force feeding if the patient cannot eat. Many cases are curable, but some dental problems can be persistent and life threatening. Fasting guinea pigs need immediate care, as they can die from bowel upsets with inadequate roughage intake.

→ Coccidia:

Coccidia are microscopic parasites living in the bowel, and are mostly seen in young cavies. If diarrhea is seen (especially in a young pet) a fecal analysis should be performed. Treatment involves giving sulfa drugs and cleaning up feces to prevent reinfection.

→ Dyshiosis & Enterotoxemia (Bowel upsets):

Intestinal upsets are a major cause of death in pet cavies. Signs may include loss of appetite, diarrhea, and lethargy, but some cavies only show one of these signs. Cavies have sensitive intestines, and almost any stress can cause this disease. Sudden diet changes, sugary treats, parasites, and some antibiotics (especially penicillins) can cause a sudden and often fatal diarrhea or bloat. This is probably due to an upset of the normal bowel bacteria, with overgrowth of harmful bacteria such as Clostridium. Bowel disease is unpredictable; mild cases may have slightly soft stool for days and still survive, but severe cases may develop depression and shock within hours and die before diarrhea develops. Prevention is via feeding a high roughage diet with minimal use of sweet items such as fruit; also minimize high protein items (oats, seeds, nuts, alfalfa). Avoid sudden changes in diet, and restrict vegies to less than 20% of the diet. Avoid vegies in the cabbage family. Treatment of bowel upsets varies with severity, but may include bacterial supplements such as milk-free acidophilus, feeding roughage (force feeding if necessary), intestinal stimulants such as Reglan or Propulsid, antidiarrheals such as Kaopectate or blackberry leaves, and injected fluids with therapy for shock in severe cases. Prompt medical care is essential whenever a cavy is lethargic, or is not eating, or has diarrhea, or feels cold to the touch. Bowel upsets are often curable if caught early.

→ Ovarian and uterine disease:

Reproductive disease is very common in aging female cavies. Their ovaries often become enlarged and cystic, which can cause increased hormone levels. This in turn leads to other pathology such as weight loss, balding, and uterine and mammary cancers. These can be deadly if not detected early. Prevention is easier: ideally spay any cavy who is not going to be a breeding animal. Spayed females tend to live longer and healthier lives.

→ Lice & Mites:

These are common skin parasites. Mites are microscopic, burrow deep in the skin, and when numerous cause intense itching, flaking, and hair loss. Severe cases may develop large scabs or sores due to intense scratching and biting at the skin. Lice are larger than mites, barely visible to the naked eye, and live on the surface, causing mild itching and some hair loss when numerous. Both mites and lice may be present for months or years with minimal signs until their numbers are large. Lice and mites can be killed with oral ivermectin; treat weekly for 8-10 weeks as the eggs persist for long periods. Lime-sulfur dip can also be used but is more labor- intensive; it may be used with ivermectin in severe cases to ease symptoms faster. Cleaning the cage weekly when treating the mites or lice will help reduce reinfestation, but long term environmental treatment is unnecessary, as the parasites die if they are off their host for long. These parasites are species-specific but highly contagious between cavies; use caution when introducing new cavies to an existing group.

→ Respiratory infection:

Signs include sneezing, wheezing, lethargy, nasal or eye discharge, or difficulty breathing. Various bacteria may cause this, including Strep and Bordetella. Dogs, cats and rabbits may carry Bordetella and ideally should not be housed in contact with cavies. Cavies at risk of exposure may be vaccinated twice yearly for Bordetella to prevent infection; the vaccine must be a killed product, as live vaccines may cause illness in cavies.

→ Head tilt (wry neck, torticollis):

This is usually due to internal ear infection, sometimes secondary to a respiratory infection. The cavy usually tilts the head to one side and has a loss of balance, often falling when trying to walk. Strep bacteria are a common cause. Treatment is with antibiotics.

→ Foot infections (bumblefoot):

These are usually caused by improper housing such as wire floors or soiled bedding. Front feet are usually affected. Diarrhea or urinary incontinence may increase soiling and risk of foot problems. Obesity puts more pressure on the feet and may contribute to abrasion of the foot pads. Mild cases have superficial ulcers on the bottoms of one or more feet; a scab may cover the ulcer. Severe cases develop deep swelling and infection of the feet which can be very difficult to cure, requiring multiple surgeries and long term antibiotics. This disease can be life threatening. Prevention is easier than treatment; provide a clean, dry cage with a solid floor and plenty of straw or paper bedding to pad the floor and absorb urine.

→ Bladder stones (uroliths):

Common in cavies over 3 years old, these are calcium stones likely formed due to weakened bladder function. Cavy urine contains much calcium normally, and any retained urine may form stones. This condition is life threatening if a urethral blockage occurs. Treatment includes surgical removal of stones from the bladder, but stones often reoccur repeatedly, so surgery alone is inadequate. A very strict low-calcium diet combined with medications can control this dangerous condition, and usually prevents reoccurrence of the uroliths.

African hedgehogs are native to warm regions and do not tolerate cold temperatures; they should be kept above 70F.  They may be housed in wood or wire cages with solid floors.  Avoid wire floors; they tend to cause foot sores, and feet may also become caught and bones broken as the pet tries to free itself.  An exercise wheel should be provided, which can help prevent obesity.  Healthy hedgehogs will often run for hours each night. Provide a thick layer of good bedding such as recycled paper or hardwood shavings (not cedar or pine).  Soft clean towels or fleece can be used, but should be removed if the pet chews them or if they become frayed; hedgehogs may become tangled in loose threads. Hedgehogs occasionally can be aggressive with each other if housed together, and may need to live separately to prevent fighting, especially with males. 

The bulk of the diet should be low fat hedgehog pellets (not a seed & fruit mix).   Pellets may be fed free choice unless obesity occurs; use a formula with 30-35% protein and no more than 9-10% fat.  Pretty Pets is a good brand of kibble.  Alternatively a very low fat cat food such as Hill’s W/D (9% fat) may be used.  The natural diet is mostly insects; in captivity occasional insects such as crickets or mealworms can be fed, but these are not nutritionally balanced, and should be used sparingly.  Earthworms, slugs, Phoenix worms & silkworms are healthier food items, if the animal will accept them.  Fresh water should always be available.  Ball bearing bottles are cleaner and not as easily spilled as bowls.  Clean the cage, food and water sources regularly. 

→ Obesity:

The most common medical problem seen in captive hedgehogs is obesity.   The usual cause is feeding high calorie foods such as regular cat food, seeds or nuts, or fatty insects such as mealworms and waxworms.  But hedgehogs can overeat even on a low fat hedgehog diet, and food intake often must be restricted to maintain proper body weight.  Healthy hedgehogs should appear twice as long as they are wide, and are not round in shape (except when rolled up).  Obesity may shorten your pet’s life span, and increases the risk of cancer.  Weight loss should be accomplished slowly, as obese pets who lose weight too rapidly may develop liver disease.  Regular exercise outside the cage helps; many will use an exercise wheel as well.

→ Weight loss:

As previously discussed, hedgehogs are aggressive eaters and rarely lose weight unless put on a strict diet. Spontaneous weight loss is a cause for concern as it usually indicates significant illness, such as dental disease, cancer, heart disease, uterine disease, etc. Seek immediate veterinary advice if you notice your pet losing weight for no apparent reason.

→ Dental Diseases:

Hedgehogs often develop gum disease and tooth infection with age.  Signs may include salivation, difficulty eating, and bad breath.  Infected teeth may be loose and painful. Perhaps more importantly, chronic gingivitis that is left untreated may lead to oral cancer (squamous cell carcinoma) which is often fatal. 

     Appropriate dental care, including tooth cleaning, oral antibiotics, and extraction of any badly infected teeth, can help keep the mouth healthy and reduce the risk of oral cancer.  A thorough oral exam may require sedation with shy hedgehogs, but if your pet is over 1 ½ years old, it is definitely recommended. 

     Inspect your hedgehog’s mouth at home every month or two if possible. Healthy animals have light pink gums and numerous small white teeth that sit close together the entire length of the mouth. Swollen, red or lumpy gums, or gaps where teeth are missing, are signs of possible periodontal disease that may need medical attention. 

→ Mites:

These are common skin parasites, but often produce no symptoms until the mite population grows large.  Various species can infest hedgehogs. Some mites are microscopic, but larger types can be barely visible with close inspection. When numerous, mites can cause itching, flaking, and quill loss.  Severe cases may develop scabs or sores due to intense scratching and biting at the skin. Mites respond to treatment with ivermectin (oral or injectable) weekly for 6-10 weeks.  Lime-sulfur dip may help when applied once or twice weekly for 6-8 weeks, but is more labor- intensive and must be applied thoroughly. Cleaning the cage weekly when treating the mites may help reduce reinfestation, but long term environmental treatment is unnecessary, as the parasites die if they are off their host for long. These parasites are species specific but highly contagious between hedgehogs; use caution when introducing new pets to an existing group.

→ Respiratory infection:

Signs include sneezing, wheezing, lethargy, nasal or eye discharge, or difficulty breathing. Various bacteria may cause this. Treatment is with antibiotics. Minimize respiratory disease with a warm, clean cage; avoid use of wood chip beddings, and feed a balanced diet.

→ Head tilt (wry neck, torticollis):

This is usually due to internal ear infection, sometimes secondary to a respiratory infection. The hedgehog usually tilts the head to one side and has a loss of balance, often falling or circling when trying to walk. Bacteria are the usual cause. Treatment is with antibiotics.

→ Fight wounds:

Hedgehogs occasionally can be aggressive with each other, and sometimes fight if housed together. This may result in bite wounds. Any visible wounds require immediate medical treatment; the risk of infection is great, and early antibiotic therapy to prevent infection is the safest option.

→ Cancers:

Hedgehogs are highly prone to many types of cancer when older; common types include oral tumors (squamous cell cancer), uterine cancer, and mammary tumors in females (breast cancer). Any visible lump should be checked immediately by a veterinarian. Oral odor, drooling, or difficulty eating are cause for concern. Many tumors are curable if caught early and removed. Weight control may reduce risk of some tumors. Spaying female hedgehogs likely reduces risk of mammary tumors, and eliminates risk of uterine cancer. Dentistry and controlling oral infections may reduce risk of oral cancer.

→ Heart disease (cardiomyopathy):

This is a degenerative disease of the heart which is seen in many pet species including dogs, cats and ferrets, and also in humans. The causes are unknown, but some forms in dogs and cats have been linked to nutritional deficiencies. Signs of heart failure include bloating, lethargy, and difficulty breathing. Treatment may control symptoms for months but isn’t likely to cure the disease. Risk of heart disease might be reduced by feeding a balanced diet and preventing obesity.

→ Degenerative myelopathy (progressive paralysis):

A poorly understood disease of unknown origin, which causes slow deterioration of the spinal cord. This causes gradual weakness and paralysis beginning in the rear legs and usually progressing to the front legs over time. Total paralysis can result. There is no effective treatment in most cases, and the condition is often fatal.

→ Hair or thread entanglements:

Hedgehogs are prone to becoming entangled in long pieces of thread (from bedding such as frayed towels) or in pieces of owners’ hair. The strands wrap around a leg or foot (or occasionally the penis in males) and act like a tourniquet, cutting into the skin and cutting off blood flow. Infection and loss of the foot may result. Minimize exposure to long hairs, strings or threads in the cage environment. If your pet is limping or has a swollen foot seek immediate veterinary care.

     Leopard geckos are carnivorous, eating mostly insects and other small prey.  Silkworms and Phoenix worms are fairly nutritious. Crickets or Dubia roaches are decent food items if calcium enriched: you need to feed the insects a high calcium “gut loading” cricket diet for 2-3 days. Insects eliminate the gut loader rapidly; the insects need to be consumed within a few hours after gut loading. T-Rex Calcium Plus or Mazuri gut loader are the only products proven effective. Earthworms and slugs are high in calcium and low in fat, making them good choices as food items if the lizard will accept them. Rolling pieces of worm in dry crushed reptile kibble may increase palatability.

     Hungry crickets may chew a gecko’s delicate skin; do not put too many crickets in the cage, and provide food for those not immediately eaten by the lizard. Mealworms, superworms & waxworms are nutritionally poor; minimize these.

     Vitamin + mineral supplements should be used sparingly. Achieving a healthy balance with supplements is difficult. Never mix products; use one balanced vitamin-mineral powder with many vitamins + minerals provided (not a simple calcium + vitamin D powder), and put a tiny pinch on the food once weekly, no more. Reptocal and Reptivite are 2 brands which offer balanced formulations. Overdosing is a potential problem with these supplements; it is safer to dose conservatively. Another option is to wet the insects and dust them with reptile food such as aquatic turtle pellets that have been ground to a powder, which will provide safe vitamin and mineral levels. Crickets may be fed softened reptile food as well, prior to gut loading them for calcium.

Try to duplicate natural conditions. The most important factors are heat & light. The ideal daytime air temperature is 77-85°F. Temperatures MUST be measured with a reliable thermometer (digital, dial or mercury thermometer, NOT a paper strip or temp gun), and in the shade away from all heat sources, to get accurate readings. Place thermometers at floor level, away from lamps, under a solid cardboard or wood shield. The terrarium can have a slightly warmer side in the upper temperature range, and a cooler side in the lower temperature range; usually attempt to keep the air temperature at the middle of the pet’s range. Improper air temperatures can cause stress and failure to thrive. In the Pacific Northwest the cage sides and top should be mostly solid, not screen, in order to trap heat and humidity. A reptile heat pad placed under the terrarium is a good heating method. Hot rocks provide heat but must be covered to prevent direct contact which may burn the lizard. Heat lamps are useful but must be at a safe distance to prevent burns (at least 18 inches usually). Heat lamps must not be bright if used at night; the best are lightless ceramic-coated lamps; dim purple coated night bulbs may also be used.

Daytime lighting should be provided even though this species is nocturnal. No ultraviolet light is needed. A simple bright light bulb or fluorescent tube can be used; provide 12-14 hours of light daily. If an incandescent bulb is used, be sure it doesn’t add excess heat to the cage when it’s turned on.

A small water bowl can provide humidity in the cage via evaporation. Geckos may not drink much from a bowl, preferring to get water from their prey or from water droplets (you can spray mist the cage daily). Do not allow prolonged soaking and defecating in the water, as this contaminates the water source and may also cause skin infections. Provide a dark hiding cave containing damp moss or cloth, which keeps the gecko’s skin from drying out while resting. Moss or artificial turf are good cage floor beddings; turf can be cleaned and reused. Sand, gravel, corn cob, walnut shells, etc. are harder to keep clean and may cause intestinal blockages if eaten. Calcisand (calcium crystals) may be safer than regular sand, as small amounts may digest if eaten.

→ Osteodystrophy (Rickets):

A calcium deficiency usually due to poor diet. This results in loss of bone density, causing stunted or crooked growth and fragile bones that fracture easily. Symptoms include weakness, tremors, soft jaw, swollen or crooked legs. Treatment is via oral calcium, and correction of diet.

→ Limb fractures:

Due to trauma (falling), or secondary to soft bones (rickets). Broken limbs may drag or fail to move normally, although the lizard may still attempt to use the leg. The bones may bend at an abnormal angle. If you suspect a leg injury have your pet examined promptly. Fractures are quite treatable; the limb is usually splinted. Correcting the diet to promote healthy bones is essential.

→ Stomach or bowel blockage:

Leopard geckos easily develop blockages from swallowing bedding such as bark chips, sand or gravel. Small amounts of bedding may be passed with the aid of oral mineral oil. Severe cases may need surgery to remove the obstruction. Be sure that moist food items such as worms are offered in a shallow bowl, not on the bedding material which may stick to them. Cool temperatures also slow the lizard’s bowel and increase risk of blockage or constipation.

→ Heat burns, cricket bites, and skin infections:

Unprotected hot rocks, heat pads or heat lamps can cause burns. Hungry crickets may bite the gecko if left uneaten. Injured skin often becomes infected. Treatment: for mild infections, chlorhexidene or Betadine solution applied 2-3 times daily for 5-10 days may be adequate. For severe lesions, dead tissue may need surgical removal followed by oral antibiotics. Correct the habitat also.

→ Mouth and respiratory infections:

These are usually caused by normal bacteria which take advantage of a stressed or weakened lizard; underlying factors such as cool temperatures or imbalanced diets often play an important role in causing these illnesses. Mouth rot causes red swollen gums and sometimes pus, odor or drooling. Cool air temperatures or mouth injury are common causes. Respiratory infections can cause mucus discharge in the mouth or nose which may resemble mouth rot, but the gums are usually normal. These diseases are treated with antibiotics and correction of diet and environment.

→ Intestinal parasites:

Various intestinal parasites are found in geckos. When severe they can cause diarrhea, weight loss, straining to defecate and even colon prolapse (bowel protruding from the anus). Diagnosis of intestinal parasites is done via examination of a fresh (within 24 hours) fecal sample. Treatment with appropriate medication, along with thorough cage cleaning, eliminates the parasites.

→ Egg binding :

Female geckos may refuse to lay their eggs, either due to lack of suitable laying sites or due to inability to lay them. Retained eggs may be reabsorbed; if not they must be laid or surgically removed. Suspect egg production in a female who suddenly looks fat through the belly, especially if her appetite is slowly decreasing. Encourage egg laying by providing warm air temperatures and a dark laying box, accessible via a small hole in the side, and filled with a few inches of moistened sand (this will allow digging of an egg laying pit).

→ Obesity and xanthomatosis:

Leopard geckos are good eaters and often become obese, especially if fed fatty prey such as mealworms and waxworms. The pet’s tail should be somewhat fat normally, but not as wide as the body. Prevent obesity via limiting food and using less fatty prey. Xanthomatosis is a disease likely caused by excess fat intake; large deposits of cholesterol form in the abdomen and internal organs. This can cause organ damage and often produces a swollen abdomen with visible pale masses within. Suspect this disease when a lizard is losing appetite and body weight (thinning tail) but has a persistently large abdomen. Treatment is supportive care, including force feeding a lean high protein diet and vitamins. Many cases are fatal, and prevention is the best approach to this disease.

→ Molting Problems:

Leopard geckos shed their entire skin regularly, similar to snakes. When preparing to molt the lizard will turn a milky pale color and should be handled minimally. If humidity is too low and/ or the animal is too cool, molting may be difficult and skin may fail to shed properly. Old pale skin is often retained on the toes, face and tail tip. If not removed, this old skin can lead to eye damage or more commonly loss of toes due to lack of blood circulation. Treatment involves softening the skin with water and carefully removing it; the toes and eyes are delicate structures, and veterinary assistance may be needed to remove skin without damaging the lizard. Prevent molting problems via keeping the cage mostly closed with a water bowl inside to humidify the air, and keep damp material in the hiding cave.   Spray misting the lizard daily when molting may also help the skin shed.

→ Tail Loss:

Leopard geckos have tails designed to break off if they are frightened or handled roughly. Hold your pet gently and never grab a gecko by its tail. The tail breaks near the base, leaving a short stub. If this occurs keep the stump clean and apply antibiotic ointment (such as Neosporin) daily until healed; be sure crickets do not chew the wound. The tail may regrow to nearly normal proportions eventually, especially in younger animals.

→ Hemipene impactions:

Male geckos have 2 hemipenes (reproductive organs) in the base of the tail, just behind the vent opening. These are visible in mature lizards as a pair of soft bulges. When they become plugged with dried secretions, they can become hard, swollen and painful. Dark material may protrude from the vent opening, and the hemipenes may get infected or even prolapse (hang out). These problems require medical treatment. Impactions are probably due to low cage humidity and/ or temperature; correct the environment to prevent this disease.

→Appetite loss:

This often results from husbandry stresses (low temperatures, short day length, noise/disturbances around the cage, diet imbalances, etc). Illness such as infection can also reduce appetite. Treatment includes correction of diet and environment, and treating disease if present.

     The core of the rabbit’s diet should be hay and pellets.  Pellets provide balanced nutrition; hay provides fiber.  

     Pellets: The diet can be up to 50% pellets with young growing babies or pregnant & nursing females.  Babies & breeding females need alfalfa-based pellets containing 16-20% protein.  With non-breeding adults use a 12-14% protein timothy pellet, as 10-20% of the diet (adjust amount to maintain proper weight).  Approximate pellet feeding guidelines are:  1) Small breeds: 2 oz. daily (weight, not volume)   2) Medium breeds: 5-6 oz. daily   3) Large breeds: 6-8 oz. daily.  Avoid mixes with seeds, nuts or dried fruits which may cause bowel problems and obesity.  Always use some pellets in the diet; without these the risk of rickets and other nutritional problems is higher.  Two brands with superior adult formulations are Oxbow Bunny Basics-T (timothy based pellets) and Kaytee Timothy.  These have less calcium and protein than many standard pellets.  A heavy bowl or metal hopper feeder will minimize food spillage & soiling.  

     Hay:  A lean grass hay should be fed free choice; timothy hay and oat hay are best for babies & adults.  Alfalfa hay is unnecessary if unlimited alfalfa pellets are given to pregnant and juvenile rabbits.  Alfalfa is too rich for non-pregnant adult rabbits and can cause GI upsets, obesity and bladder stones. Ideally put hay in a hopper or wire bin on the cage wall, to minimize scattering and soiling of the hay on the cage floor.  Wet and moldy food can be toxic. NOTE: for rabbits who can’t or won’t eat hay, a compressed hay pellet is available (by Exotic Nutrition); these can be fed ad lib, and allow intake of hay for these rabbits. This pellet is NOT a rabbit food, only hay; regular rabbit pellets MUST be fed in addition, or the rabbit may be malnourished. 

     Vegetables: Veggies may be fed as 10-15% (or less) of the diet; more may cause bowel upsets, especially in older rabbits.  Feeding very small portions daily is safer than giving a lot all at once; the rabbit bowel dislikes sudden changes, and a rabbit may also overeat veggies if provided large servings. The rabbit digestive tract is adapted for eating mostly grasses unsuitable for human consumption; many vegetables humans consume are too rich to feed to rabbits.  Leafy greens such as lettuce, spinach, dandelions, blackberry leaves, cilantro, carrot tops, and parsley are the best tolerated.  Fresh grasses are safe.  Avoid foods high in sugar (fruits, carrots, tomatoes, peppers, corn, etc.); or items high in protein (seeds, nuts, oats, grains, beans, etc).  Avoid veggies in the cabbage family (cabbage, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, kale, bok choy) as they may cause gas production and bloating.  Avoid sweet treats such as yogurt drops.  Feed no meat or dairy products.    Introduce new foods gradually to see how they are tolerated; avoid any foods that cause diarrhea or appetite loss.  Water:  Provide clean water at all times; change it daily.  In cages water bottles are best as rabbits tend to spill or soil water bowls.  Check the bottle spout periodically to ensure it doesn’t plug.

Outdoor rabbit hutches may be used; they need to be sturdy to prevent intrusion by raccoons or other animals, and must provide shelter from wind and rain.  A 3- sided shed (1 side open) facing away from the prevailing wind is adequate.  Rabbits are cold tolerant and can survive in an unheated hutch if provided with dry draft free conditions and bedding to snuggle into.  They are heat sensitive and may die of heat prostration at temperatures over 80-85 F.  Provide shade, plenty of water and a frozen milk jug to sit against on hot days, or bring the rabbit indoors.  More often rabbits are housed totally indoors, either in a spacious cage or having the run of the house.  Small breeds (such as Polish, Dutch & Netherland Dwarf) use a (minimum) 24”x 30”x 18” cage.  Medium breeds (such as New Zealands, Californians, and Satins) use a 30”x 30”x 18” cage.  Giant breeds such as Flemish Giants and Checkered Giants need a 48”x 30”x 18” cage.  If the floor is wire, cover it with thick bedding, or provide a smooth surface (wood or cardboard) to sit on, or the feet will develop sores.  If the floor is solid, provide a deep bedding layer to absorb urine and prevent soiling.  Straw, hardwood chips (not pine or cedar) fleece, or paper bedding are good.  A litter box filled with recycled paper or plant pellets may be used by some rabbits.  Keep the cage clean, dry and well ventilated.  Minimize chewing on metal or hard wood; instead provide cardboard or paper toys (non-inked) to chew and play with.  

→ Skin Mites (Cheyletiella):

These are common and may produce no symptoms for months or years. The first sign is often a patch of flaky “dandruff” over the shoulder area (on the back), which may slowly spread. Itching and hair loss occur in severe cases. Treatment with ivermectin or selamectin is effective; treat for 8-10 weeks.

→ Ear Mites:

These are small mites which live in the ear & produce dry crusty debris in the canal. Symptoms may be absent, or may include head shaking, pawing at the ears, or ears held lower than normal. Treatment with oral Ivermectin usually eliminates the mites; stubborn cases may need ear cleaning and ear drops.

→ “Snuffles” (Pasteurella):

This is a respiratory disease, usually caused by Pasteurella bacteria. These may be carried for months or years with no symptoms. Snuffles is highly contagious, and can occasionally be fatal, especially in very young animals. Cats commonly carry Pasteurella without symptoms; avoid cat-rabbit contact!  Rabbits living with cats can now be vaccinated yearly for Pasteurella. Symptoms in rabbits are sneezing, runny eyes or nose, congested breathing, or weight loss. This disease may progress slowly, or can rapidly cause death. Prompt treatment with antibiotics is recommended when symptoms are present. Infections are life-long but can usually be well controlled.

→ Inner Ear Infection (Head Tilt, Wry Neck) (Pasteurella):

(HEAD TILT, WRY NECK): This is usually caused by Pasteurella bacteria, and can occur secondary to respiratory infection. Signs are acute dizziness & balance loss; the rabbit’s head may be twisted back or sideways. Prompt veterinary care and antibiotics are needed. A less common disease with similar signs is Encephalitozoon cuniculi, a parasite which can affect the brain. It usually causes milder and more gradual symptoms.

→ Uterine Cancer:

Very common in aging female rabbits (over 3 years old) if not spayed; up to 80% of older females may get this disease! Often fatal if not detected early, uterine cancer is easily prevented by spaying non-breeding females at 5-6 months old. Uterine tumors that haven’t spread may be cured by spaying as well.

→ Wool Block or hairballs:

Blockages of the digestive tract can be due to impactions of food and hair in the stomach or bowel. This occurs more often on low roughage diets (e.g. no hay) and during molting. Long haired rabbits may be more at risk. A rabbit may swallow large amounts of hair when grooming; brush or pluck fur daily during Spring and Fall molting to minimize buildup of hair in the stomach. 

     Stomach hairballs (actually a congealed mix of food and hair) are very uncommon on hay-based diets. These cause slow appetite loss, and decrease in size & number of fecal pellets, often with hair in the stool. A veterinary exam can usually detect an impacted stomach. Medical treatment is often successful: heavy fluid intake, stomach massage, and Reglan (metoclopramide) often help empty the stomach.  Avoid pineapple juice or papaya, as these are high in sugar and can cause diarrhea, and are not effective at removing hairballs. Probiotics (acidophilus) may minimize diarrhea & bloating while the rabbit is blocked. 

     Intestinal hairballs: Occasionally a small hairball escapes the stomach but blocks the intestine; these patients become painful, bloated, weak, and may progress into shock & death within 4-24 hours. Emergency surgery is the  best option. Brushing/plucking loose hair during molts may help prevent this disease.

→ Dental Disease:

Rabbits have a variety of tooth problems, the most common being malocclusion and tooth abscesses. Malocclusion is the improper alignment of teeth resulting in tooth overgrowth. Rabbit teeth grow constantly. When incisors (front teeth) are misaligned they can’t wear down on the opposing teeth and can grow to extreme lengths. Gnawing on hard objects (wood, metal) doesn’t help wear down the incisors, and may actually damage the teeth, helping to create a malocclusion. Molars (back teeth) may also overgrow due to misalignment, or due to tooth infection and pain which prevents normal chewing. Molars are worn down partially by chewing abrasive foods (pellets & hay). Symptoms of tooth overgrowth include weight loss, appetite loss, salivation, oral odor, and tooth grinding. Treatment includes trimming the teeth to proper length and correcting any underlying problems.

→ DYSBIOSIS, ILEUS, & ENTEROTOXEMIA (BOWEL DISEASE):

Often loosely called “GI Stasis”, these are intestinal upsets caused by imbalances of intestinal bacteria, with resulting overgrowth of harmful bacteria such as Clostridium.  These can produce toxins, which may lead to loss of gut motility, gas, cramping, and bloating. Severe cases lead to shock and death.  Disruption of the intestinal bacteria is usually the underlying problem; common causes include sudden diet changes, sugary items like fruit, high protein items like oats and alfalfa, low roughage diets lacking in hay, antibiotic usage (especially penicillins), or other diseases and stress (especially if fasting occurs).  Mild bowel upsets may cause slight stool softening; severe cases have appetite loss, sometimes watery or mucoid diarrhea (or no stools), and severe weakness.  Treatment includes bowel stimulants (Reglan) to help bowel movement, and bacterial supplements (milk-free acidophilus, veterinary probiotics, or healthy rabbit fecal slurry) to reload the bowel with harmless bacteria.  Banamine (or meloxicam) can reduce pain and cramps. Hypothermic rabbits need warm injected fluids and heat provided.  Force-feeding roughage may help.  Toxin binding drugs (Toxiban) may help prevent absorption of bowel toxins into the body.  Kaolin-pectin and blackberry leaves may firm the stools.  Antibiotic usage is usually avoided.  Severe cases can progress to coma and death within hours.  Most need injected (not oral) medications initially, as these work much more rapidly & reliably when the gut is not functioning. If your rabbit is lethargic, not eating, has diarrhea, or acts uncomfortable or “hunched up,” seek veterinary care immediately!  Feed a high roughage diet (hay, pellets, with minimal veggies or treats) to help avoid this disease.

Skunks are omnivores, eating plant and animal food sources. They are very prone to obesity and need a balanced low fat diet.  Dry or canned dog food should be part of the diet. With adults over 6 months old, use only low fat formulas, such as Hills W/D (aim for a fat content of 9% or less). When using a commercial food, no vitamin supplements are needed. A few tartar control kibbles such as Hills T/D for small dogs can be given daily to help keep teeth clean. 

Vegetables can be fed as 50-75% of the diet; use a nutritional guide to choose veggies with a good calcium/phosphorous ratio.  Leafy greens are generally calcium rich; fruits are not and should be minimized. A few exceptions are papaya, raspberries, blackberries, grapes, apples, and mango which may be used in a mixed diet. Hardboiled eggwhites (may include the shell for calcium) minus the fatty yolks may be given occasionally, as well as nonfat yogurt, low fat cheese, and earthworms. 

Avoid mealworms, waxworms and superworms as they are fatty and lack calcium. In general, avoid high calorie items such as nuts, cheese, meat, avocado, grains, cereals, etc. as they may cause obesity, and minimize sweet treats or milk products.  

Adult skunks should not have food constantly available, but should be fed small portions twice daily.  Provide fresh water at all times; use a water bottle or very heavy bowl,  as skunks dig in water bowls and spill or soil the water frequently.  Change water daily.

Home care may include nail trimming every 3-4 weeks. Tooth brushing with a canine/feline paste is recommended if the skunk is amenable to it; starting very young makes this easier. Bathing is optional but may reduce the skunk’s moderate musky odor.  Pet skunks have been “descented” (anal sacs removed) before sale; spaying and neutering is recommended at 5-6 months old.  Neutering or spaying reduces odor, and eliminates reproductive diseases in the females; neutering may help reduce aggression in males.  Avoid purchasing skunks which have been neutered very young by the breeder, as early neutering in closely related species has been shown to increase the risk of certain health problems

     Veterinary care is important.  Canine distemper vaccine should be given at 8,11 & 14 weeks of age and then annually; a safe brand is PureVax (Merial) which contains no actual distemper virus. Rabies vaccine is not approved for skunks. Skunks are susceptible to infectious canine hepatitis and leptospirosis, and vaccination for these diseases is discretionary. Unless regularly contacting unvaccinated dogs or spending much time outdoors, the risk of a skunk’s exposure to hepatitis or lepto is low. Skunks are NOT susceptible to feline distemper or canine parvovirus, despite rumors to the contrary. 

     Annual visits for exam and vaccines are recommended for skunks 1- 5 years old; exams may be done every 6 months on skunks over 5 years old.  An annual blood profile in skunks over 4 years old helps detect disease.  Fecal samples and deworming are important, as skunks can carry worms which may infect other household pets and even humans, sometimes producing severe disease.

→ Fleas:

Skunks can carry the dog and cat fleas. Flea treatment involves topical flea products on the pet, and treating the house environment as well. Advantage (or Combiva) monthly drops have been found effective; use caution not to overdose these pets with a flea product.

→ Canine Distemper Virus:

This is a deadly viral disease of dogs, ferrets and wildlife (foxes, raccoons, skunks etc). It can be  brought indoors on shoes or other objects. Signs include nasal and eye discharge, chin rash, weakness, weight loss, hard crusty foot pads, and neurologic signs such as seizures, aggression, stupor and coma. Nearly all cases are fatal within 10 days. There is no really effective treatment; prevent this disease with vaccination.

→ Gastric Foreign Bodies:

Skunks may chew and swallow rubber items, which often lodge in the stomach or bowel. They also can develop hairballs in the stomach. Stomach foreign bodies may be nonsymptomatic, or can cause tooth grinding, nausea, vomiting, decreased appetite, weight loss, and tarry black stools. If the object blocks the bowel, signs are immediate and severe and include depression, weakness, vomiting and appetite loss. Bowel blockage is a medical emergency. Diagnosis is via clinical signs, palpation, xrays, and sometimes surgical exam of the stomach. Treatment is via surgical removal. Prevent this problem via avoidance of rubber items which the skunk may chew on. Hairballs may be prevented with oral medication such as Laxatone; brush or pluck loose hair during times of heavy shedding (Spring & Fall usually).

→ Stomach & Intestinal Diseases:

Skunks may exhibit vomiting, diarrhea, or appetite loss for a variety of reasons, including foreign bodies, food intolerance, parasites, bacterial infections, and other conditions. Accurate diagnosis starts with a thorough history and exam, a fecal analysis, and sometimes blood tests or x-rays. Treatment depends on the specific disease. Many gut upsets can be prevented via feeding a healthy stable diet. Avoid sugary treats, uncooked meats, milk, and sudden diet changes. Prevent your pet from chewing on soft rubbery items such as small chew toys or foam earplugs, which if swallowed can cause intestinal blockages. Blockages are emergencies; seek immediate veterinary care for any skunk with sudden appetite loss, lethargy and/or vomiting.

→ Herpes Necrotizing Encephalitis:

Skunks may be infected with the human herpes simplex virus, either the genital or oral (“cold sore”) varieties. Symptoms include tremors, depression, lethargy, head bobbing and salivating. The virus causes severe inflammation of the skunk’s brain, and the condition may be fatal. Some patients recover in 3-7 days.  Avoid handling your skunk if you have a herpes lesion, and wash your hands well with antiseptic soap before handling the skunk’s food or cage.

→ Dental Disease:

Like other carnivores skunks may develop tartar, gingivitis and periodontal disease with age. Brushing may reduce plaque and improve dental health; cleaning and polishing teeth under anesthesia may be needed when a skunk has significant tartar and dental disease. Fractured or infected teeth might need extraction.

→ Heart Disease:

Skunks may develop cardiomyopathy, a degenerative condition of the heart muscle of unknown cause. Amino acid deficiencies (taurine, carnitine) have been found to cause some cardiomyopathies in dogs and cats, but no nutritional link is known in skunks. Symptoms are seen only in advanced cases and may include lethargy, bloating, difficulty breathing, wheezing, and weight loss. Heart problems may be detected earlier via regular veterinary exams; there is no cure, but early treatment can slow the heart degeneration and prolong life.

→ Obesity:

Skunks easily become overweight due to their love of food and tendency to become lazy. If they eat too much or if the diet is high in calories, they can become extremely obese. This leads to reduced activity and increased risk of other health problems, including fatty liver disease. Prevent obesity with measured feedings of a balanced low calorie diet and regular exercise.

→ Intestinal Parasites:

Skunks are commonly infected with a roundworm, Baylisascaris columnaris, which can infect other types of animals and possibly humans, sometimes causing eye or brain damage. Fecal samples should be examined when the skunk is young to detect parasites; treatment is via multiple doses of deworming medication until recheck fecal samples are persistently negative. Preventing reinfestation (via exposure of the pet to its own feces) is very important. Litter boxes should be cleaned frequently during deworming, and cage surfaces disinfected with bleach when possible. Avoid wood cage bottoms which are porous and may become permanently contaminated with worm eggs. When cleaning the litter box or handling fecal samples, use disposable latex gloves to avoid exposure to worm eggs. Tapeworms and lungworms are less of a problem, mostly found in wild skunks.

Gliders are primarily insectivores (carnivores). In nature they also can survive for periods of time by eating tree saps and nectars when insect prey are scarce. They never eat fruits or vegetables in the wild. In the past, complex diet formulas such as Leadbeater’s Mix were developed.  Although the original mix worked well when carefully formulated, most of the “Leadbeaters Mixes” or “BML” formulas now listed on the Internet have been modified from the original, and are no longer nutritionally balanced.  Like most ‘home made’ diets in other species (such as cats), the vast majority of formulas don’t hold up to close scrutiny, and are likely nutritionally inadequate.  The need for such diets has largely vanished, due to good commercial glider diets which are now available.   

     The safest approach is to use a nutritionally complete dry pelleted food as the bulk of the diet. Pretty Pets glider diet is good; Pocket Pets kibble is adequate as well. Alternatively, a very low fat cat food or a low fat Hedgehog kibble may be used. These should contain no more than 35% protein and 10% fat. These foods provide balanced vitamins, minerals and protein. Gliders eating good kibbles need NO additional calcium or vitamin supplements.  

    Live prey can be fed, but need to be low in fat and calcium balanced if used as more than occasional ‘treats’. Earthworms, Phoenix worms & slugs are good. Crickets or Dubia roaches may be used if they are calcium-enriched via feeding them T-Rex Calcium Plus or Mazuri gut loader food for 2-3 days (no other insect gut loaders have been proven effective.)  Avoid mealworms, superworms & waxworms as these are nutritionally poor. 

     You can offer small amounts of sweet foods, including non-fat yogurt, cottage cheese, and fruit baby food. 

     Note: many  veggies are low in calcium; limit items such as carrots, peas, corn, sweet potato, and most fruits.  The higher calcium veggies and fruits may be fed more liberally, including papaya, blackberries, raspberries, grapes, apples, mango, and some chopped leafy greens.  These are all low fat and won’t likely cause obesity. Avoid high fat foods such as seeds & nuts, cheese, avocado, monkey chow, or regular dog & cat foods.  Offer small meals twice daily; reduce the amount if your glider becomes heavy.   

     Provide fresh water via a water feeder bottle, although gliders may only drink sparingly.

Sugar gliders are very active and need space; a minimum cage size for a glider would be 18 inches wide and long, and 30 inches tall. Open air cages (wire) are best. The cage bottom should be covered with an inch of absorbent bedding changed twice weekly, such as hardwood (Birch or Aspen) chips, or recycled paper bedding (such as Care Fresh). Avoid cedar or pine which contain toxic oils. Some branches free of splinters should be provided for climbing. Gliders prefer to hide and sleep inside a small chamber; a hanging cloth pouch suspended from the cage should be provided with easy access via a branch. A hanging basket may also be provided with soft cloth bedding contained within, as some gliders prefer this sleeping arrangement. Gliders like heat; the ideal air temperature is 60-90F. Avoid cold drafty conditions; keep the cage clean & dry. Gliders do not need wood to chew on as their front teeth are self-wearing.

→ Rear Leg Paralysis:

This condition is fairly common and typically occurs suddenly. Autopsy exam of paralyzed pets has revealed that spinal cord trauma is the usual cause. Gliders are very active and often leap around. If their diet is deficient in calcium or has a calcium / phosphorous imbalance, then the bones become soft, which leads to an easily damaged spinal column. Treatment of paralysis includes restricting the pet’s activity and giving cortisone within 24 hours of the injury, as well as correction of the diet and short term calcium supplementation. However, severely damaged spinal cords do not heal, and in many cases the paralysis is permanent, so the pet does not survive. Prevent this disease by feeding a balanced diet including a commercial food, and avoid obesity.

→ Polioencephalomalacia:

This is a neurologic condition wherein certain areas of the brain degenerate. Signs may include weakness, dizziness, incoordination, gradual paralysis, tremors, disorientation and lethargy.The pet usually eats poorly and loses weight. The causes are not completely understood, but some animals appear to improve with administration of Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) suggesting that nutritional deficiencies may contribute to this disease. Severe cases may fail to improve and eventually die. Prevention is best accomplished by feeding a balanced diet including a good commercial food.

→ Cataracts:

These appear as a pale “spot” in the center of the eye (in the lens) and result in blindness. These typically occur in very young infant gliders. Infection of the mother’s pouch may lead to eye damage in the infant glider. Another possible cause is nutritional, as infant cataracts seem more common when the mother is on a poor diet, or is fed too much sugary food, or is obese, or when the mother is bred too frequently. Vitamin A deficiency has been proposed as a possible cause. Lastly, there may be a genetic (inherited) tendency to get cataracts. There is no effective treatment. Prevention is attempted via ensuring that the breeding female is on a healthy diet, is not overweight, is not bred too heavily, has no pouch infections (a veterinary exam and pouch culturing should be done), and that there is no family history of cataracts in the female’s past.

→ Trauma:

Gliders are easily injured if they are attacked by other house pets, are dropped, stepped on, or have a tail or leg become trapped in the cage wire. Torn skin and bone fractures are common. Prevent injuries by handling your glider carefully, and providing safe secure housing away from the reach of other pets.An injured glider should be placed in a small enclosure such as a small cage or box to minimize movement, and kept warm; seek veterinary care immediately.

→ Urinary tract diseases:

These may include bladder infections, urinary blockages, and kidney disease. These problems may be more common in gliders on very high protein/ high mineral diets such as large amounts of regular cat food. Signs may include bloody urine, straining to urinate or dribbling urine, lethargy, decreased appetite, increased thirst or urine output, protruding and/ or discolored penis, and weight loss. Treatment depends on the exact type of urinary tract disorder; seek veterinary care if signs are noticed. Prevention is via providing proper diet and housing.

→ Reproductive problems:

Failure to reproduce, or weak/ dying joeys (babies) are common problems. Failure to breed can be due to improper cage setup such as inadequate space which leads to aggression between gliders. Weak or dying joeys are commonly seen when the mother’s nutrition or health are not adequate. Be sure the mother is on a balanced diet and is not obese; do not breed her more than once yearly, and have her checked for infections of the pouch, mammary glands, or uterus. Preventive exams may include a check of blood calcium levels, fecal parasite exam, urinalysis to check for reproductive infections, and a pouch swab to check for bacteria and yeast infection.

→ Digestive disorders:

Gliders may develop diarrhea or rectal prolapse (protruding bowel). Common causes include bacterial infection of the bowel, parasites, or improper diet. A fecal analysis should be done on a fresh fecal sample; antibiotics or anti-parasitic drugs may be needed, along with anti-diarrhea medication such as kaolin-pectin. Correct the diet if necessary.

→ Skin problems:

Poor hair coats and/ or oily skin may be seen with poor diet or moist/ dirty cage conditions. Self trauma from repeated escape attempts or pacing within a small cage may result in areas of hair loss, due to repeated rubbing of an area of skin. Occasionally mites may cause small bumps on the edges of the ears. Mature male gliders develop a normal bald patch on the top of the head between the ears, and another on the front of the chest, where scent glands are located.

Dragons are mostly carnivorous and prefer live prey.  Good dietary items include earthworms (nightcrawlers, not redworms or compost worms), slugs (not water snails), small live fish (fed in a shallow bowl of water to allow the lizard to catch them), Phoenix worms, pinkie mice (once weekly at most), silkworms, and crickets or Dubia roaches. Mealworms, waxworms & goldfish are nutritionally poor and should be used sparingly. Feed the crickets & roaches a high calcium “gut loading” cricket diet (T-Rex Calcium Plus or Mazuri are the only products proven effective) for 2-3 days prior to using these insects as food, or they will be calcium deficient.  Gut-loaded insects must be consumed within a few hours or they will eliminate the gut loading food. 

     Healthy dragons will also eat some vegetables, especially leafy greens, including dandelions, kale, collards, mustard greens, green leaf lettuce, and papaya.  Ideally use a nutritional guide to choose vegies with good calcium/phosphorous content.  

     Vitamins + minerals can be safely provided via a commercial food such as a bearded dragon or aquatic turtle pellet, which can be crushed or ground to a powder, then sprinkled on worms or vegetables. The pellets contain vitamins and minerals at low concentrations so over-dosage is not a risk. Crushed food can be used daily as a supplement. 

     Powdered vitamin & calcium supplements should be used sparingly if at all; they are unnecessary if using food pellets.  Achieving a healthy balance with these supplements is difficult.  Never mix products; use one balanced vitamin-mineral powder which contains many vitamins + calcium and phosphorous, and put a tiny pinch on the food once weekly, no more.  Reptocal and Reptivite are 2 brands which offer balanced formulations.  Overdosing is a potential concern with reptile supplements; it’s safer to use a ground-up reptile kibble. 

: Try to duplicate natural conditions. Large terrariums are best.. The most important factors are heat & light. The ideal daytime air temperature is 80-92°F; temperature readings must be taken in the shade away from heat sources to be accurate. Below 80°F or above 100°F can cause stress and failure to thrive. Monitor cage temperature at several spots with good mercury, digital or dial type thermometers; avoid paper strip thermometers or temp guns which do not accurately read air temperature. Place thermometers at ground level, under a solid cardboard or wood shield, away from heat lamps. The terrarium can have a warmer side and a cooler side, but within the required temperature range. If the cage temperature is uniform then aim at 85°F as an ideal temperature. Do not let the temperature fall below 75°F at night. The cage sides and top should be mostly solid, not screen, in order to trap heat and humidity. A reptile heat pad placed under the terrarium is one heating method. Hot rocks provide heat but must be covered to prevent direct contact which may burn the lizard. Heat lamps are useful but must be at a safe distance to prevent burns (at least 18 inches usually). Heat lamps must not be bright if used at night; the best are lightless ceramic-coated lamps; dim purple or red coated night bulbs may also be used.

A spacious swimming area should be provided. Aquarium designs can be fancy with large landscaped pools and water filters similar to a fish tank. A simpler method uses a large plastic or steel water container that covers part of the cage bottom. The water container can be easily lifted out and the water changed without disrupting the dry part of the tank. Dragons will drink while swimming but also defecate in the water. Without a filter system the water should be changed daily to keep it clean.

Be sure your lizard can easily climb in and out of the water. The dragon should spend most of its time out of the water basking. Basking allows the pet to dry between baths, to warm its body, and to absorb UV light. Artificial turf makes good flooring for the dry area as it can be cleaned and reused, and it can’t be eaten. Sand, gravel, corn cob, wood chips, etc may be eaten and cause bowel blockages; replace bedding when soiled.

Lighting requires special attention. You must provide both visible (white) light and ultraviolet light in the 280-320 nm spectrum (called UV-B). This mimics outdoor sunlight which dragons require. Our climate provides too little sunlight, and window glass or plexiglass filters out most of the sun’s UV rays. Lack of proper lighting causes poor or picky appetites, poor growth, and bone disease. Provide correct lighting with a fluorescent “full spectrum” light. Reptisun (made by Zoo med) and Reptile D-Light provide strong UV levels; other brands include Reptile Daylight (Energy Savers Unlimited), Reptiglo, & Reptasun (by Flukers). These are all fluorescent tubes; in general no regular incandescent bulb produces good UV light. These lights have a limited effective lifespan and should be changed every 6- 8 months when in use. A good day length is 12-14 hours of light. These lights won’t cause burns, and they need to be close to the pet to be effective, usually closer than the length of the light bulb. (A 24 inch tube should be within 18 inches of the lizard to be effective). The bulb should run the entire length of the cage; bulbs smaller than 24 inches (including compact coils) are usually too weak to be effective. Avoid plastic or glass barriers between the light and the pet (these block UV). Minimize hiding from the light (such as in a dark cave); instead provide hiding shelter behind a plant or rock where the light is still strong, or cover part of the transparent cage wall with paper to allow hiding in that area.

Some screw type incandescent bulbs have appeared which do produce strong UV levels. These are mercury vapor lamps; they produce high UV output and heat, so must be kept at a safe distance (at least 18-24 inches away). They are best used for very large, tall cages, and should be replaced yearly. These usually cost $45-$100, and when shut off must have a “cool down” period before they can be turned back on. Other round bulbs which cost less and require no “cool down” cycle are simple light bulbs, and do not produce good UV output.

→ Osteodystrophy (Rickets):

A calcium deficiency usually due to poor diet and/or too little UV light. Symptoms include weakness, tremors, soft jaw, swollen or crooked legs. Treatment is via injectable or oral calcium, and correction of diet and lighting.

→ Limb fractures:

Due to trauma, or secondary to soft bones (rickets). The limb is usually splinted. Correcting the diet and the lighting is critical.

→ Stomach or bowel blockage:

Dragons may develop blockages from swallowing bedding such as bark chips or gravel. Small amounts may be passed with the aid of oral mineral oil.  Severe cases may need surgery to remove the obstruction. Cool temperatures slow the bowel and increase risk of blockage or constipation.

→ Heat burns/skin infections:

Unprotected hot rocks, heat pads or heat lights can cause burns. Burned skin often becomes infected. Seeking heat in cool cages increases risk of burns. Bacterial or fungal infection can also result from lying in contaminated water or on soiled flooring. Treatment: for mild infections, chlorhexidene or Betadine solution applied 2-3 times daily for 5-10 days may be adequate. For severe lesions, dead tissue may need surgical removal followed by oral antibiotics. Correct the habitat also.

→ Mouthrot and respiratory infections:

These are usually caused by normal bacteria which take advantage of a stressed or weakened dragon; underlying factors such as cool temperatures or imbalanced diets often play an important role in causing these illnesses. Mouthrot causes red swollen gums and sometimes odor or drooling. Respiratory infections can cause mucus discharge in the mouth or nose which may resemble mouthrot, but the gums are usually normal. Both diseases are treated with antibiotics and correction of diet and environment.

→ Intestinal parasites:

Dragons can get a variety of parasites in their intestines, and also in their muscles. Diagnosis of intestinal parasites is done via examination of a fresh (within 24 hours) fecal sample. Treatment with appropriate medication, along with thorough cage cleaning, eliminates the bowel parasites.

→ Facial mutilation:

Water dragons are very prone to banging or rubbing the front of the face on the walls of their enclosure; this can result in abrasions of the lips and nose, and in severe cases they can lose much of the face, becoming badly mutilated. Rough cage surfaces make the problem worse. The behavior may result from persistent escape attempts, or from attacking their own reflections in reflective surfaces such as glass. Self mutilation is reduced by providing a large spacious cage, and by making the bottom 5 or 6 inches of the cage walls non transparent and non reflective. Apply duct tape or other material to the inside of the cage walls around the bottom (not on the outside as this makes glass walls act like a mirror). This makes the wall appear solid and also prevents any reflections. Facial injuries may become infected and require antibiotics until healed.

→ Appetite loss:

This often results from husbandry stresses (low temperatures, inadequate UV light, short day length, noise/disturbances around the cage, etc). Illness such as infection can also reduce appetite. Treatment includes correction of diet and environment, and treating disease if present.